.V3At 



Vanadium Steels 


Their Classification 
and Heat Treatment 
with Directions for 
the Application of 
Vanadium to Steel 
and Iron 






I 


American Vanadium Company 

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 


















(iopyright N“ 


COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 















Vanadium Steels 

IQll 

T heir classification and 
Heat Treatment with 
Directions for Application of 
Vanadium to Iron and Steel 



Copyright, 1911. by 

American Vanadium 
Com pany 

Frick Bldg., Pittsburgh, Penna. 













©CI.Aa83704 

//' V.‘ 


Destruction test on full-sized Eye Dtir of Vanmlium Sle«>l 
Elastic Limit 80,840 lbs. per square inch. Tensile Strength 99,890 lbs. persq. inch 
Elongation in 12 inches, 32.55^. Elongation in 20 feet, Reduction at fracture, 52.3^. Eracture, silky 










HISTORICAL 


T he element Vanadium has, within the past few years, 
sprung from the position of a scientific curiosity to that 
of a commercial metal which, suitably ap})lie(l, has 
marked an epoch in the history of the steel trade. 

The existence of the element was first recognized in 1801 
by Del Rio, professor of mineralogy in the city of Mexico. 
He found it in a brown-red ore from Zimapan, and after not¬ 
ing that it was different from chromium and uranium, called 
it erythronium because of the red color of its salts. In May, 
1803, there is an obvious reference to the new metal under 
the name of panchrome. 

Contemporaneous chemists discredited the observations 
of Del Rio. Humboldt and Bomi)land sent samples of his 
newly discovered ores to France where they were submitted 
to Collet-Descotils for analysis. Before the results were 
published, Del Rio had renounced his own discovery and 
concluded that he had found only a basic chromate of 
lead. Collet-Descotils too hastily confirmed this assumj)tion 
by stating that no new element was contained. 

The matter rested here for about thirty years when Sef- 
strdm discovered a substance similar to erythronium in a 
piece of soft iron remarkable for its ductility and made from 
the magnetic ores of Taberg, Sweden. He suceeded in study¬ 
ing its characteristic reactions and in marking the distinc¬ 
tions between it and chromium as well as uranium, both of 
which metals exhibited many analogies. With only two deci¬ 
grams of material to work uj)on he established the existence 
of the new element beyond question, recognized its several 
degrees of oxidation and even described some of its salts. 
He proved that it was identical with the discredited erythro¬ 
nium of Del Rio but gave it the more euphonious name of 
Vanadium, after the goddess, Vanadis, one of the Scandi¬ 
navian Valkyries. 




4 


VANADIUM STEELS 


/J1ie element was not isolated as a metal until 1807, when 
Sir Henry Roscoe made a study of its compounds and indi- 
( cited its use, necessarily to a small extent, m dyeing, tinting' 
^^lass, coloring porcelain, etc. 


I lire ^ anadium is silvery-white in a})pearance and melts 
only in the intense heat of the electric furnace. It has, in the 
pure state, but an academic value. 


Its atomic weight is 51.‘'27; its s})ecific gravitv at 15° (\ is 
5.5, and its specific heat is 0.1^88 at 0° C. 


Sefstrbm was the first to notice the jiresence of \ anadium 
in Swedish irons and steels of the very highest quality, and 
this seemed to indicate its a})j)lication for the specific purpose 
of improving iron and steel by the deliberate addition of 
the new element. 


It vas observed that an alloy ol Vanadium and iron in the 
iespecti\e proportions of one to two had a comparativelv 
low melting point and that the judicious use of the element 
m small quantities conferred marvelous properties to steel. 

An application having been indicated, it was next essential 
to secure a supply. Until very recently Vvanadium has been 
classed as a rare element and as late as 1895 its iirice was 
estimated at more than $10,()()0 a pound. It is, however, a 
very widely .scattered metal and a sufficiently searching 
analysis will indicate it in almost every kind of soap in 
ordmaiy pottery, in many types of lead and silver ores’, in 
.some ot the bituminous coals of South America, in the copper 
deposits of the Lake Siipenor region, in the porcelain clays 
ol Trance, m Bauxite, and m association with titanium ores. 
1 hough widely distributed, the percentages of Vanadium 
are usually very minute and the commercialization of the 
e enient was made possible only by the discoveries of the 
engineers ol the American V^anadinni Companv, who located 
an unusually rich mine almost 1(),()00 feet aboVe sea level in 
the mountains of Peru. 


Alter years of experiment aiul the expenditure of very 
large sums of money l)y this eompany, ^’anadillm products 
are now avadahle at satisfactory prices in any onantitv. 


VANADIUM STEELS 


5 


Owing to its discovery in sufficient amounts to make its 
remarkable properties available in the metallurgical field, 
not only for steel, but for iron, copper, brass, bronze and 
aluminum. Vanadium has been brought down from a value 
many times that of gold to a price that permits its use in 
tool steels, forgings, bridge members, automobile parts, steel 
castings, and in general, in all tyjies of metal that are required 
to yield the highest class of services, 

\ anadium Steels meet the requirements which the best 
classes of ordinary steels are unable to satisfy, and which the 
highest classes of jireviously known steels of tlie most expen¬ 
sive character were unable to meet. 

hVrro-\ anadium is the alloy by means of which Vanadium 
is introduced into steel and iron; Cuj)ro-Vanadium is used 
with coj)per, brass and bronze, and Ahimino-\ anadium with 
aluminum. 

• 

riie first experiments with Vanadium in steel were not 
uniformly good, because the Ferro-Vanadium employed con¬ 
tained carbon or other elements that destroyed the beneficial 
action of the Vanadium. 

In the manufacture of \ anadium Allovs for anv class of 
metallurgical work, it is of vital imjiortance that injurious 
elements shall be comjiletely eliminated. The factory of the 
American Vanadium Company is the largest of its kind in 
the world, and the only one that produces Vanadium Alloys 
in commercial (juantities on a guaranteed analysis and free 
from harmful impurities. 

^^ith ^ anadium Alloys scrupulously true to specifications, 
and with a knowledge of the proper modes of heat treat¬ 
ment, the metallurgist of today has at his command materials 
of construction immensely superior to any previously known, 
and is able to move into lines of accomjdishment with per¬ 
fectly adequate means for every re(]uirement. 



6 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Useful Strength in Steel 

It had l)een the custom for many years to form an opinion 
of the (jualities of steel by its behavior when subjected to a 
stea(l\ lotid or a slowly applied bending action, that being- 
considered the best metal which was strong and ductile, 
stretching greath^ before breaking under a steady i)ull, and 
bending without breaking. Ductility could be maintained 
in steels of ordinary composition uj) to a certain strength, 
but beyond this the metal became brittle. 

Steels were next prepared in which much higher resistance 
to load could be attained before brittleness was reached, 
through the use of various alloys. But it soon became ap¬ 
parent that in many cases the ductility thus attained did 
not necessarily imply a certainty that the metal would behave 
well under stresses applied in a different manner. Statically 
ductile steel fractured sometimes like glass under the influence 
of shock, whether so severe as to be termed “overwhelming” 
in nature, or much lighter and continually repeated, or even 
under the influence of constant vibration. 

The needs of the engineer of today demand, with increas- 
ing force, strong steel which shall be enduring under such 
conditions as the latter, and it has become obvious that the 
same basis of judgment should not be taken literally in indi¬ 
cating the suitability of materials for such widely different 
purposes as—to take two typical examples—the manufac¬ 
ture of (1) bridges and (2) locomotive connecting rods. 

In modern machine construction, especially in those parts 
which are liable to failure in service, it is, after all, ^^dynamic" 
superiority that is the essential consideration, namely, resistance 
to repeated stresses, to alternating stresses, to simple or 
repeated alternating impacts and to fatigue (which latter is 
the outward visible sign of molecular disintegration). Thus 
a new field has been opened out and in this field Vanadium 
was found by extended experiment and prolonged practical 
experience to be pre-eminent, in fact to stand alone. 

Vanadium statically intensifies tremendously the strength¬ 
ening power of other ingredients, enabling such a small 
quantity of that ingredient to be used as not to injure the 
metal dynamically; in itself, it confers remarkable dynamic 


VANADIUM STEELS 


7 


properties to steel; it retards “segregation,” and so renders 
steel partienlarly susceptible to the highly important improve¬ 
ments due to tempering; utilizing this same characteristic, 
steels can be prepared which are very resistant to wear 
and erosion; Vanadium toughens steel, and confers to it great 
powers of resistance to torsional ruj)ture; in a word, it 
endows it with the quality of “life” in practical work. 

“Dynamic” Testing of Steel 


In the table on pages 3*^ and 33, the dynamic figures shown 
under the heading of “alternations” were obtained by means 
of the alternating impact test performed on the Landgraf- 
Turner machine under strictly standard conditions. 

In this form of test, the test piece, held securely at one 
end in a vise, is moved backwards and forwards by means of 
a slotted arm which communicates to the j)iece successive 
l)ermanent distortions in each direction, such distortions 
having been produced by means of an impact followed imme¬ 
diately by a i)ushing motion. As a result, the test piece is 
fractured finally on the line of the vise, at which jmint the 
severest stresses are created. The slotted arm moves on a 
crank, so that the pushing motion is performed without the 
interfering factor of “rub,” as the slotted arm describes the 
same arc as the distorted test piece. 

It has been objected by some engineers that, as in com¬ 
mercial work they never anticipate the stresses on metal 
parts to even approach the elastic limit of the metal, this 
test has no bearing on service conditions. On the other hand, 
it is universally conceded that the great majority of service 
fractures are caused by strains which are repeatedly applied, 
thus resulting in the molecular deterioration of the metal. 
Furthermore, it is allowed that the nearer such repeated 
stresses individually approach in degree the elastic limit, the 
more rapidly the rate of deterioration is increased. Hence, 
by submitting a metal to rotary vibration against an over¬ 
hanging weight, unless the fibre stress thus communicated 
in each case bears a strict relation to the elastic limit of the 
metal under investigation, the figures obtained are so 
obscured as to render the results valueless for ])urposes of 


8 


VANADIUM STEELS 


comparison. In addition, many other factors inftnence the 
results of a rotary test, such as fluctuation in the rate of 
rotation, “whipping” of tlie sample, deviation from true 
alignment, swinging motion of the overhanging weight, and 
the method of the initial application of the same, all of 
which tend further to render the results of the test non¬ 
comparable. 

The function of the alternating impact test is to rapidly 
tear apart, both from each other and in themselves, the con¬ 
stituent “crystals” of the metal of the test piece; and as a 
result, the inherent value of the metal, in resisting molecular 
deterioration, is obtained. Thus, although the alternating 
impact test would at first sight appear to have nothing 
in common with })ractical conditions, the identical results 
required for successful service performance are obtained. 
^yithout elaborating further on this matter, it will be suffi¬ 
cient to refer any interested persons to the prolific work of 
Professor Arnold, Professor MacWilliam, Mr. J. T. Milton, 
Mr. W. L. rurner and many others, on the service value 
of the test. 

It has already been said that the rate of deterioration 
advances enormously as the conditions are more drastic, and 
therefore direct readings of the alternation machine should 
be taken in some measure of geometrical proportion, rather 
than in arithmetical proportion, in deducing “life” value, as 
a jirogressive or detailed fracture is produced in the course of 
a couple of minutes on the testing machine in question. 


Effect of Vanadium 

\ anadium steels of numerous tyjies are being made regu¬ 
larly by the progressive steel mills of the world and the 
properties of the steels obtained fully substantiate the pub¬ 
lished tests. 

^ anadium exerts its power in at least three ways: 

1. It indirectly toughens steel, owing to its scavenging 
action, by removing oxides, nitrides, etc., in a fusible form 
easily carried away in the slag. In this respect, it differs 
from some other deoxidizing alloys. 



VANADIUM STEELS 


9 


'■1. It directly toughens steel mainly by its solid solution, 
under normal conditions, in the carbonless portion known 
as ferrite. To succeed in this respect, the alloy must either 
contain free Vanadium, or Vanadium combined with some 
other element which also goes into solid solution in ferrite 
under normal conditions, such as silicon. 

S. It forms complex carbides of such nature as to static¬ 
ally strengthen the steel containing them. These carbides 
are proved to add more strength to steel when they contain 
chromium or nickel. 


Heat-Treatment of Vanadium Steel 

The term “heat-treatment” is of comparatively recent 
origin. Strictly, however, it covers processes which have 
been jiracticed for many years, namely 

Annealing, and 
Tempering. 

The extension of the term to include such manipulation 
by heat as will either wholly or partially restore a steel which, 
owing to mechanical, thermal, or service conditions, has 
become dangerously crystalline and brittle—a question full 
of controversy at the moment—should not really enter into 
the heat-treatment of newly-made or of unused steels. 

Before dwelling on the commercial phase of the subject, 
the ultimate structure of a piece of constructional (or “sub- 
saturated”) steel, under normal conditions, will be consid¬ 
ered in as elementary and non-technical manner as possible. 
Such steel consists primarily of iron, with more or less carbon, 
some sulphur, phosphorus and manganese, and possibly, 
silicon, nickel, chromium or Vanadium, in addition. 

The carbon therein contained is combined chemically 
with a molecular proportion of iron. A molecule of this 
chemical compound alloys itself with twenty-one atoms of 
carbonless iron and the resultant alloy is distributed in mesh 
form, through the main background or network of carbon¬ 
less iron. This alloy is known technically as pearlite, 
and the free carbonless iron as ferrite. The precise manner 
in which this pearlite is arranged in respect to size, plate- 


lU 


VANADIUM STEELS 


like form, regular or irregular distribution, etc., depends to 
a considerable degree on the nature and amount of “hot work” 
put on the steel, the rate of cooling, and so on. 

Manganese is found as a constituent of the pearlite; a 
part of the manganese unites chemically with the sulphur 
(also possibly with some of the silicon) of the steel, the result¬ 
ant compound forming striae, or globules throughout the 
mass. 

The phosphorus and the remainder of the silicon, and, if 
used, a large part of the nickel, are dissolved in the ferrite, 
in the form known as “solid solution.” 

Chromium is found as a constituent of the pearlite. 

Vanadium is found partly in solid solution in the ferrite 
(free and constituent in the pearlite), which it toughens, 
and j)artly in the carbide j)ortion of the pearlite, which it 
strengthens. 

If heat be ap])lied to a bar of normal steel, it will become 
sensibly hotter with each successive increment of heat up to 
a given point. Thereupon further application of heat causes 
a molecular rearrangement instead of increasing the sensible 
temperature of the steel; the pearlite becomes broken up, 
its carbides going into solid solution in the ferrite. When 
such decomposition and solution are complete, sensible tem¬ 
perature of the steel again rises as heat is applied. 

In cooling the steel, the converse takes place. To a certain 
point, the steel cools regularly; then it apparently ceases to 
cool, its dissolved carbides being thrown out of solution, and 
alloying themselves with ferrite to re-form pearlite. When the 
carbides are completely thrown out of solution, sensible cool¬ 
ing again regularly proceeds. 

Such IS a brief explanation of the phenomena of calescence 
and recalescence. 

The^ object of annealing is to break uj) the carbide areas 
and distribute the same in small colonies. AVherefore, the 
steel should be heated above the calescence point, this tem¬ 
perature lieingmaintained long enough to thoroughly decom¬ 
pose the pearlite, as well as to remove any strains that may 
have been locked up in the mass during mechanical opera¬ 
tions; it should then be allowed to cool slowly through the 



VANADIUM STEELS 


II 


recalesceiice point, due precautions being taken to jn event 
chilling, etc. The less plate-like the formation of the 
pearlite thus reformed, and the more granular (or “sorbitic”) 
the colonized carbide areas, the better the annealing. 

The general appearance of pearlite in worked, but un¬ 
annealed steel will be seen in microphotograph No. 1 (the 
white portion of the photograph re])resents carbonless iron, 
or ferrite), while the result of excellent annealing of such steel 
will be seen in microphotograph No 2, page ‘^'2. 

A \ anadium ferrite does not jiermit of the ready jiassage 
through it of the carbides precipitated at the recalescence 
point; therefore the colonization of carbides in such steel is 
much less complete and their distribution better; conse¬ 
quently, the toughness and tenacity of the steel is increased, 
irrespective of the added toughness of the background of 
Vanadium ferrite. Exemplification of this is shown in micro¬ 
photograph No. 3, page 22. 

If the steel heated above its calescence point (when it 
contains all its carbides in solid solution), be subjected to 
very quick cooling, so that no chance is given for the depo¬ 
sition or rejirecipitation of its dissolved carbide, a new body 
is formed, known by the generic term “martensite;” in other 
words, martensite may be said to consist of a frozen solution 
of carbides in ferrite. In its nature, this body is brittle and 
intensely hard. The intensity of its hardness, however, 
naturally varies both with regard to the nature and amount of 
carbides contained in the frozen solid solution, and to their 
rate of freezing. 

For most machinery purjioses, it is better to make this 
sudden abstraction of heat by quenching in an oil bath. 
Quenching in water certainly results in the quicker abstrac¬ 
tion of heat and in the formation of a more intense marten¬ 
site, but water (pienching is very apt to give rise to the 
formation of small (they may be microscopically small) 
cracks, which militate severely against the useful perform¬ 
ance in service of the steel which has undergone this 
process of quenching. 

Under certain conditions, oil may be replaced, with more 
or less advantage, by different aqueous solutions; this course 



12 


VANADIUM STEELS 


is resorted to when it is desired to impnrt a more intense 
hardness to the material than can be attained by quenching 
in oil and at the same time to avoid the formation of the 
minute cracks due to ordinary water-quenching. 

In passing, it should be noted that steels containing con¬ 
siderable quantities of chromium and manganese together 
are particularly liable to give rise to cracks when quenched 
in water. 


The typical martensitic structure obtained by quenching 
Type “A” Chrome-Vanadium steel in oil from 900° C., is 
illustrated in microphotograph No. 4, page 22. 

Martensite is not a stable “body,” its equilibrium being 
destroyed very much below the calescence point; when sub¬ 
jected to a temperature of about 360° C., for a period of time 
sufficient to thoroughly soak through the mass, it is decom¬ 
posed, its carbides being deposited in situ and soft ferrite 
liberated as a background. As the temperature applied in 
this tempering (or “letting down”) heat is increased, the car¬ 
bides begin to flock together, the rate increasing much more 
rapidly as the tempering heat is augmented. 

Microphotograph No. 5, page 23, illustrates the tempering 
of the steel shown in microphotograph No. 4, by the im¬ 
mersion at 550 C., for fifteen minutes, of a 13^-inch round 
bar. 


Microphotograph No. 6, page 23, shows the grouping to¬ 
gether of the carbides on increasing the temperature, this 
being precisely the same steel as shown in microphotographs 

Nos. 4 and 5, except that the tempering heat was continued 
to 630° C. 


At the calescence point the deposited carbides once more 
go into solid solution, and are again precipitated on cooling 
the steel; if such cooling be slow, the phenomena of an an¬ 
nealed steel are obtained. Hence, it will be seen, that the 
oil tempering operation, which consists essentially of the two 
processes of quenching and of letting down (or drawing back), 
must be practiced so that the letting down is never performed 
at or above the calescence point, otherwise the virtues due 
to the oil tempering are entirely lost. 


VANADIUM STEELS 


13 


It would he well to observe in connection with this draw¬ 
ing hack, or letting down, jirocess, that it can be accomplished 
excellently at low temperatures in an oil hath kept at the 
requisite temperature by means of a fire or gas burner. 

An excellent way of drawing back small quenched articles, 
which are required to be let down at a higher temperature 
than is consistent with the use of hot oil, is to immerse same 
m a bath of molten lead, or fused salts, kept at the desired 
heat by means of a fire. 

Drawing back may also be accomplished, for both large 
and small articles, by placing them in a furnace which is 
already at the desired temperature, maintaining such heat 
during the prescribed period. The recalescence jioints of 
similar steels, made by the different processes hereinbefore 
mentioned, being substantially the same, the annealing treat¬ 
ment recommended is aiiplicable in all cases. When it comes 
to temper, however, three facts must be considered: 

1. That the stiffer steels when quenched form more in¬ 
tense martensites. 

lhat some quenching liquids are more drastic than 

others. 

3. That the more intense the martensite, the more de¬ 
composing it takes, other things being equal. 

In the treatments hereinafter recommended, the figures 
given are with respect to quenching in lard oil, or a mixture 
of lard and fish oils, which mixture will be found very sat¬ 
isfactory. 

The oil is generally contained in a tank which is water- 
cooled, so that the temperature of the bath is usually about 
50 or 60° C., or in some cases, possibly a little higher. It is 
not absolutely necessary that lard and fish oils be used alone, 
as it is admissable to add a considerable quantity of cotton 
seed oil, etc., but the characteristics of such mixture of lard 
and fish oils should be adhered to as much as jiossible; for 
example, the admixture of any class of medium-thin ])araffin 
oil would not be recommended. 

A more drastic quenching liquid than the above, would be 
cold water, which, however, for reasons already explained. 


14 


VANADIUM STKELS 


is not recommended for structural steels, while iced brine and 
quicksilver are still more drastic in their cooling action. Even 
in the case of cold water, the temperature from which the 
steel is quenched must be about o0° C. to 150° C. less (always 
keeping it above the calescence point, of course) than if 
the quenching were done in oil, in order to obtain the same 
degree of martensitic formation. 

It is apparent that if absolutely the same composition be 
followed irrespective of the jirocess of manufacture, as the 
stiffer steels form martensites which require more breaking 
up, the drawing back temperatures in tempering should be 
correspondingly somewhat higher, or the quenching temper¬ 
atures somewhat lower, or both, so that the final results may 
in each case be equal. Similar remarks apply if two steels 
be made by the same process, one of which is somewhat stiffer 
than the other, owing to composition. 

Conversely, il quenching and drawing-back temperatures 
are kept constant, then the figures on the table which apply 
to the composition of basic open-hearth steels must be modi¬ 
fied somewhat in their stiffening elements, according to the 
process of manufacture, so that the final results be the same. 

biicli modifications in composition are approximately 
given in tabular form. 

The stiffening elements may be said to be carbon, man¬ 
ganese, chromium, and part of the Vanadium. It is assumed 
that the phosphorus and sulphur, the former especially, 
remain reasonably low in every case. 

Taking an example: If acid Type “D” Chrome-Vanadium 
spring steel be made, and is to be subjected to the heat- 
treatment indicated in the table, the.carbon should be kept 
in the neighborhood of .45%, the chromium should be kept 
down to but little over 1%, while the manganese content 
should be almiit .80%. If on the other hand, the Type “D” 
comi)osition shown on the table for basic open-hearth steel 
be used in the case of acid steel, the quenching in oil of the 
resultant s])ring bar should be done from a temperature of 
about 850° C. and the drawing-back T)erformed between 
450° C. and 550° C. 



VANADIUM STEELS 


15 


All steels to be as tree as jiossible from siiliiluir and phos¬ 
phorus. The sulphur percentage may go to .04% without 
detriment. 

In these compositions the Vaiiadium given in each case is 
that which should be contained in the steel. 

From the earlier remarks it will be seen that an extra 
amount of \ anadium must be added in order to compensate 
for that lost in combination with oxides and nitrides. 

Under normal conditions of good melting, it would be safe 
to assume that the finished metal in the furnace would con¬ 
tain rather less than .01% of nitrogen and about .02% of 
oxygen. To provide for this amount of nitrogen and oxygen, 
about .07% of Vanadium (reckoned on the weight of the 
steel) would be required by open-hearth steel which has 
been well deoxidized by ordinary means. 

In a steel of ideal properties it is a certainty that conqio- 
sition must jilay the leading “role,” for though it is possible 
to manipulate a steel of bad composition so that it fulfills a 
few of the requirements of a good steel, it is impossible by 
simjde (or comj)lex) “faking”—to use the term of Professor 
Arnold in this connection—to attain them all. Given the 
necessary comj)osition, both the processes of manufacture 
and the treatment of the ])roduct must be carefully carried out 
to ensure success, and in a steel of new composition these may 
deviate somewhat from routine practice as ai)plied to ordi¬ 
nary steel. Hence something further is required after the 
matter of composition is settled. 



16 


VANADIUM STEP:LS 


Range of Chemical Compositions 

for the various types of Vanadium Steel, 

as recommended by the American Vanadium Company 

These compositions are approximately what steel makers 
are furnishing in the various types of Vanadium steel, 
though many modifications are currently used. In order¬ 
ing steel, the purpose for ivhich it is to he used and the 
physical properties desired should always he given. 



; MILD 

1 REGULAR 

1 

j FULL 

Type “A ” 
Carbon 

Manganese _ 
Chromium. 

Silicon _ 

\ anadium. 

1 .18% to .25% 
.35% to .50% 
i .60% to .80% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

! 

.25% to .32% 
.40% to .60% 
.80% to 1.00% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

.32% to .37% 
.40% to .50% 
.80% to 1.00% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

Type “D” 
Carbon 

Manganese_ 

Chromium _ _ 

Silicon __ 

Vanadium 

35% to .43% 
.70% to .90% 
.80% to 1.10% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

1 

' .43% to .52% 
.70% to .90% 
.80% to 1.10% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

.52% to .60% 
.60% to .80% 
.80% to 1.10% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

Type “E” 
Carbon. 


.10% to .15% 
.25% to .40% 
.25% to .40% ; 
under .20% j 
over .12% 

.15% to .20% 
.25% to .40% 
.25% to .40% 
under .20% 
over .12% 

Manganese . 


Chromium 

1 

Silicon _. 


Vanadium 




Type “F” 
Carbon. 


j 

.08% to .14% 
.20% to .30% 
over .10% ' 
over .10% 


Manganese . 

i 

1 


Silicon_ 



Vanadium 




[ 































































VANADIUM STEELS 


17 


Chemical Compositions—Continued 



MILD 

REGULAR 

1 FULI, 

Type “G” 
Carbon_ 


1 

.55% to .65% 

! .60% to .80% 

1 .80% to 1.00% 
.^20% to .30% 
over .16% 

.75% to .85% 
.30% to .45% 
.80% to 1.00% 
under .'20% 
over .16% 


Manganese. _ 



Chromium_ 



Silicon_ 



Vanadium.. 



Type “H”* 
Carbon. _ 


.85% to 1.00% 
.30% to .45% 
.45% to .60% 
under .20% 
over .16% 

Manganese 


Chromium 


Silicon.. . 


Vanadium 




Type “J” 

Carbon _ _ 


.20% to .35% 
.50% to .80% 
.20% to .35% 
over .16% 

SPECIAL 

.40% to .50% 
.50% to .80% 
.20% to .35% 
over .16% 

Manganese. . 


Silicon_ _ _ 


Vanadium_ 




Type “K” 
Carbon. _ 

i 

.45% to .55% 
.30% to .45% ! 
.80% to 1.10% j 
under .20% 
over .16% 

REGULAR 

Manganese. __ __ 

1 


Chromium__ 

1 


Silicon 



Vanadium__ 







Note: Sulphur and phosphorus to be below .04% for all types exeepting 
Type “J” and “J” Special, in which cases they can be as high as .05%. The 
figures given for Vanadium are containetl Vanadium. See pages 15 and 56. 


*Type “11” is specially intended for cutter work and would be modified, 
mainly as to its carbon percentage, in order to make it suitable for other 
work, such as saws, etc., while in some ca.ses its manganese content would 
be also lowered. 








































































18 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Heat Treatments 

Based on Compositions given on pages 16 and 17. 

No. 1. Anneal at 800° C. for one or two hours, cooling 
slowly in air, in ashes, or even in the furnace, according to 
the nature of the piece, the cooling process being made to 
take place more slowly with smaller pieces, as such small 
pieces do not contain any body of heat. 

No. 2. Quench from 900° C. in oil and anneal (“let down” 
or “draw back”) the quenched piece at 550° C. for one-half 
to two hours, according to size of piece. Cool in air. 

No. 3. Quench from 900 to 950° C. in oil and anneal at 
360° C. for one-quarter to one-half hour. Cool in air. 

No. 4. Quench from 875° C. in oil and draw back at 400 
to 450° C. Cool in air. 

^ No. 5. Quench from 850° C. and draw back at 550° C. 
C^ool in air. 

No. 6. This number rej)resents the special tool tempering 
treatment which is applied in ordinary circumstances to the 
nature of the same tool when made from ordinary steel. 

No. 7. Case Hardening Process: The essential fea¬ 
ture of casehardening involves not only the production of a 
body having a hard outside, but of one which at the same 
time has a strong and tough core. Thus it will be seen that 
no tempering steel should be casehardened, for as the prac¬ 
tically final process of casehardening involves a quenching 
treatment, such steel would become hard right through. Tak¬ 
ing advantage of the comparatively slow transition of car¬ 
bides through a Vanadium ferrite, and of the strong nature of 
\ anmlium ferrite interspersed with well emulsified Vanadium 
sorbite, and further of the comparatively tough nature of 
Vanadium martensite, the type “E” Chrome-Vanadium steel 
is particularly suited to the casehardening process. The 
raw steel is essentially a mild steel and is illustrated in micro¬ 
photograph No. 7, page 23, while a piece cut from the core 
of the cased and quenched article made from this steel is 
structurally illustrated in microphotograph No. 8, page 23. 
The strong similarity of microphotographs No. 6 and 8 show 
that by quenching this type “E” steel a physical result is 



VANADIUM STEELS 


19 


obtained which is almost exactly comparable with slightly 
oyer-tempered tyjie “A” Chrome-Vanadium steel, and this 
similarity is further evidenced by the results of many tests 
made in the mechanical laboratorv. 

t. 

The best casehardening jiroeess will be found by pro¬ 
ceeding on the following lines: 

The rough machined material is annealed, irrespective of 
its softness, in order to remove all strains imprisoned therein 
through the mechanical jirocesses of forging or rolling. This 
is a very important item, as the first time the article is sub¬ 
jected to sufficient heat, these strains are liberated, and dis¬ 
tortion ensues; consequently, if the piece has already been 
machined to dead size and the strains are liberated by means 
ot the casing heat, the quenching process fixes this distortion 
lierinanently. After such annealing, the article is machined 
to finished size and is jiacked in tlie carlnirizing material. 
Many good carburizing materials are to be found: bone, 
bone-dust, hydro-carbonated bone, good charred leather, 
and a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of baryta all being 
suitable. Great things are claimed for the last named, es¬ 
pecially in France, on account of its declared regularity of 
penetratiini, but it would seem that its use is principally in 
the direction of the cementing of large articles, such as j)lates, 
etc. It is the consensus of opinion that the best carburizing 
agents are nitrogenous; nitrogen compounds jirobably assist 
the carburizing either by the promotion of secondary reac¬ 
tions, or as some contend, through their lowering action on 
the transformation point of iron. Small amounts of nitrogen, 
pure and simjile, are absorbed or occluded from them by the 
iron to be cased, but such nitrogen is expelled by the reheat¬ 
ing preceding quenching. It is important that the carbur¬ 
izing material should be thoroughly dried, evenly sized and 
free from all admixture of earthy or metallic impurities. The 
luting of the box containing the packed articles should be 
done with day which is absolutely free from grease. The box 
and its contents are then heated to 1000° C. and kej)t there 
as long as may be necessary; it is impossible to,^.r any given 
time, as naturally this must be regulated from practical ex¬ 
perience, taking into consideration the contour of the article 
to be cased, its size, and the depth of casing desired. 


20 


VANADIUM STP:ELS 


1 he box and its contents are allowed to cool, the articles 
removed, brushed and reheated in an atmosphere as non¬ 
oxidizing as possible, to 8,50° C., when they are plunged in 
clean, cool water. The article thus quenched is thrown into 
hot oil and kept at a temperature of about 200° C. to 250° C. 
for some time in order to release some of the strains caused 
by quenching. This oil warming does not appreciably inter¬ 
fere with the surface hardness of casehardened machinery 
steels, but it relieves imprisoned strains very considerably. 

Trials made on test bars of open-hearth basic steel of the 
type above shown gave the following typical figures—in the 


soft condition: 

Elastic limit, pounds per square inch_40,000 

Tensile strength, pounds per square inch_60,000 

Elongation in 2 inches_ 35% 

Reduction of area_ 65^ 


Bars of lyi and Ij^-inch diameter were cleaned and cased 
as recommended. The casehardened bars were subjected to 
load until the outer surface was cracked; the bars had then 
taken a very appreciable bend, although the casehardening 
had penetrated at least one millimeter. The bars were then 
broken; sharp corners of the case would easily scratch glass. 
The hard casing was next ground away and as soon as a por¬ 
tion was obtained sufficiently soft to be machined, were 
turned down to the ordinary shaped tensile test-piece, and 
also to round rods about one-half inch diameter. Tensile test 
of the actual cores showed the following figures: 


Elastic limit, pounds per square inch_ 70,000 

Tensile strength, pounds per square inch __ 97,000 

Elongation in 2 inches_ 21% 

Reduction of area_ 62% 


In each case the machined half-inch rounds from the core 
bent double cold. 

Other bars were deeply cased and a photograph (three 
times natural size) of such a bar, fractured, is shown on 
page 40. 









VANADIUM STEELS 


21 


Rounds were also casehardened and were beaten out cold 
to rectangular shape. The casing, although shattered, 
adhered to the soft core. The photograph on page 41 (three 
times natural size) shows a piece treated in this wav. 

t/ 

The dynamic figure under alternating impact was excep¬ 
tionally high when the steel was in the soft condition; quality 
figures deduced from the static tests and the alternating 
impact tests on the Turner formula gave the high quality 
figure of approximately 6000 , while the **core” gave a 
correspondingly high quality figure. 

In the foregoing, all temperatures cpioted were determined 
by the electric pyrometer. The apjiended table gives the 
approximate color valuations of these temperatures in the 
diffused daylight of the ordinary shoji. The temperatures 
generally enunciated in the pocketbooks as corresponding to 
various color shades should on no account be taken, as they 
are based on the falacy that the specific heat of iron is con¬ 
stant for all temperatures, which is now known to be a grosslv 
mistaken view. 


Approximate Correlation of Color 
Temperature 

As Viewed in the Diffused Daylight of the Ordinary Shop, with 
the Reading of the Electric Resistance Pyrometer 


Black red (just visible)- About 500°C 

Dull blood red_ “ 550°C 

Warm blood red_ “ 00()°C 

Cherry red_ “ 700°C 

^ ery full cherry red_ “ 800°C 

Light red, merging from very clear cherry_ 850 to 900°C 

Orange to light yellow- 1000 to 1100°C 

White- h200°C 

Throwing off sparks, i.e., scintillating heat of fairly mild 

steel- “ 1800°C 

/ Melting point of mild steel_-_ “ 15!20°C 

\ Not determined by electric resistance. 












22 


VANADIUM STEELS 



Fifi. 2 Fi{i. 4 


1. All microphotographs from etched transverse sections, verti¬ 
cally illuminated and magnified 360 diameters 







VANADIUM STEELS 





Fig 6 Fig. 8 


PLATE 2. All microphotographs from etched transverse sections, verti¬ 
cally illuminated and magnified 360 diameters 












24 


vanadium steels 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steel, and the 
Type and Treatment Recommended 
for each case 


There is no single tyi)e of Vanadium steel that does all 
things. It is necessary to make various kinds and grades for 
different purposes, and below is found a list of the purposes 
for which different ^ anadium steels have been successfully 
applied, with instructions as to their proper heat treatment to 
meet specified requirements. 

In the tables presented, with regard to composition and 
heat treatment, the results have been mainly deduced from 
experience with basic open-hearth Chrome-Vanadium steels 

ated 1^^ service records and by exhaustive 
microscopic investigation. 


A 

Air Reservoirs__ 

Ammunition Hoists_ 

Ammunition Wagons_ 

Anchors_ 

Angles_ 

Armature Shafts_ 

Armor Plate_ 

Armor Plate Bolts_ 

Automobile Boiler Tubes 

Automobile Castings_ 

Automobile Forgings_ 

Axes_ 

Axles—Automobile_ 

Axles—Electric Car_ 

Axles—Field Gun Carriage 

Axles—Freight Car_ 

Axles—“Light”__ 

Axles—Locomotive_ 

Axles—Passenger Car 
Axles—Tender Truck 


TYPE 

HEAT 

TREATMENT 

NO. 

A 

A 

1 A 

2 

F 

Normal 

A, E 


A 

Special 

2 

1 A 

1 and 2 

E 

Annealed 

J 

Annealed 

1 A, D, E 

1, 2, .5 and 7 

1 H 

6 

‘ A 

2 

‘ A 

2 

I A 

2 

1 A 

2 

^ A 

2 

A 1 

2 

A 

2 

A i 

• 

1 

2 






































VANADIUM STEELS 


25 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 


B 


Hall Mill Plates_ 

Ball Mill Shafts_ 

Bars_ 

Beams_ 

Bicycle Chains (part) 

Bicycle Tubes_ 

Billets_ 

Blooms_ 

Bolts_ 

Bridge Pins_ 

Bulb Angles_ 

Ball Races_ 


C 

Cables, Wire __ 

Cam Shafts_ 

Channels_ _ 

Columns, Roll(*d_ 

Condenser Tubes_ 

Couplers__ 

Crank Pins_ 

Crank Shafts_ 

Crank Webs_ 

Cross Heads (Locomotive) 

Cutlery_ 

Casehardening Steel_ 


CASTINGS 

Automobile Castings_ 

Couplers_ 

Crank Webs_ 

Cylinders_ 

Dredge Bucket Lips_ 

Frogs and Switches_ 

(iearing and (iear Wheel Blanks 

Knuckles_ 

Rolling Mill Pinions_ 

Rolling Mill Rolls_ 


TYPE 

HEAT 

TREATMENT 

NO. 

H 

() 

: A 

2 

All types 


A, E 

Normal 

A 

2 

A, E 

1 and 2 

All types 



All types 


A, D 
A, E 
E, H 


A, D 
E 

A, E 
A, E 
E, F 
J 

A, D 

A 

A 

J 

H 

E 


: J 
J 
J 
1 J 

■ Special 
I Special 
I Special 
I Special 
J Special 
J 


1 and 2 

Normal 
7 and 6 


1 and ^ 

/ 

Normal 

1, Normal 
Annealed 

2 

1 and 2 
Annealed 
() 


Annealed 

























































26 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 


LOCOMOTIVE CASTINGS 

Air Brake Cylinder Levers_ 

Bell Cranks_ 

Brake Beams_ 

Brake Brackets_ _ 

Boiler Pads_ 

Buffers_ 

Cross Heads_ _ 

Cross Head Shoes__ 

Cross Head Arms_ 

Cross Braces_ 

Cab Brackets_ 

Cylinders and Heads_ 

Centre Plates_ 

Driver Brake Levers__ 

Driving Boxes_ 

Driving Box Beams_ 

Driving Wheel Centres_ 

Draw Heads_ 

Pmgine Frames_ 

Engine Truck Frames_ 

Engine Truck Centre Pin Guides_ 

Engine Truck Swing Bolsters_ 

Engine Truck Swing Links_ 

Equalizer Beams_ 

Eccentrics_ 

Eccentric Straps_ 

Fire Box Mud Rings_ 

Foot Plates_ 

Frames__ 

Frame Braces_ 

Fulcrum Shaft Bearings_ 

Fulcrum Castings_ 

Guide Yokes_ 

Guide Yoke Knees_ 

Grate Shaft Bearings_ 

Link Motion Supports_ 

Lift Shafts_ 

Pilot Frame Ends__ 

Pilot Frame Tops and Bottoms_ 

Pedestals_’_ 

Pistons_ 


he: AT 

Tvi'K treatme:\t 

NO. 


J ' Annealed 































































VANADIUM STEELS 


27 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 



TYPE 

HEAT 

treat.mext 

\o. 

LOCOMOTIVE CASTINGS, Con. 

Rocker Arms 


1 

Rocker Boxes 


1 

Reverse Shafts 



Runboard Brackets 

Rubbing or Chafing Irons 

Radial Bar Cross Tie Caps 

Side Bearings 

Spring Rigging Posts .. 

Spring Saddles. _ 

Spring Seats 

Spring Hanger Plates 

Scoop Levers. 

Steam Chests 

Transmission Bars 

Trailing Truck Brakes 

Levers. 

Pan Bottom Segments 

Pan Scrapers , 

J 

! 

1 

Annealed 

D 

Deck Plate 

Die Rings 

Dies. j 

Discs. 

Dredge Bucket Lips . j 

Drop Forgings.. | 

Driving Axles . , 

Special 

K 

K 

All types 
Special 

All types 
A, D 

1 

() 

() 

‘■2 and 1 

E 1 

Eccentric Rods 1 

Eccentric Shafts j 

Electric Car Axles 

Electric Car Construction 

Eve Bars 

A 

A 

A 

All types 

A 

0 

2 

2 

2 

F 

File Steel 

Feedwater Heater Tubes. 

Field Gun Carriage Axles 

Fire Box Plate. 

H 

E 

(> 

1, Xormal 

2 

/ Normal or 

1 Annealed 






























































28 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 




HEAT 


TYPK 

TREATMENT 



NO. 

F 



Flats_ 

Freight Car Axles. _ _ . 

Frogs and Switches.. ... . 

All types 

A 

1 

: 2 

Special 


FORGINGS 



Automobile Forgings. . __ 

All types 

>2 

Drop Forgings._ . . . . 

i 4 

2 

Locomotive Forgings . . 

4 4 

1 and 2 

Stationary Engine Forgings 

k 4 

1 and 2 

Marine Engine Forgings and Pins. . 

4 4 

1 and 2 

G 



(ias Engine Construction 

All types 


Gearing and Gear Wheel'Blanks . . 

A, D, E 

2, 3, 5, 6, 7 

Girders _ 

Grinding Mill Tires _ __ 

A, E 

G 

Normal 

6 

Gudgeon Pins.. 

E 

7 

Guns. _ 

A, D 

2 and 5 

Clears—Clash _ 

E 

7 

Gun Barrels.. _ _ 

A, D 

2 and 5 

Gun Forgings. _ . _ 

A, D 

As required 

Gun Hoops. _ . . . 

A or D 

44 

Gun Shield.. __ 

Special 


H 



Hammer Piston and Hammer Piston Rods. . 

A 

2 

Holding Down Bolts for Crun Mounts 

A 

1 and 2 

Hollow Piston Rods . _ . . 

A 

2 

Hollow Shafting_ 

A, E 

2 

Hydraulic Cylinders_ 

Special 


I-K 



I-Beams. 

A, E 

Normal 

Keys. __ _ 

Knuckles _ . 

A, D 
Special 

As required 

L 



Locomotive Axles_ 

A 

2 

Locomotive Boiler Plate 

E 

Normal, 1 

Locomotive Castings.... ' 

J 

Annealed 

Locomotive Piston Rods. 

A 

2 

Locomotive Stay Bolts. . 

F 

Normal 

Locomotiv'e Tires 

G 

As required 



















































VANADIUM STEELS 


29 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 


LOCOMOTIVE FORGINGS 

Axles_ 

Connecting Rods_ ] 

Crank Pins_ 

Cross Heads_ ~ 

Guides_ 

Pedestal Cap Bolts_] 

Piston Rods_ 


M 

Marine Boiler Plate_ 

Marine Boiler Tubes_ 

0 

Marine Engine Piston Rods_ 

Magnet Steel_ ^ 

MARINE ENGINE FORGINGS 
AND SHAFTING 

Connecting Rods_ 

Crank Pins__ 

Crankshafts_ 


ORDNANCE 

(iun Forgings_ 

Gun Shields_ 

Projectiles_ 

Rifle Barrels and Small Arms,. 

P 

Passenger Car Axles 

Pedestal Cap Bolts, __ 

Pinions_ 

Pneumatic Tools_ 

Projectiles_ 

Propeller Shafts_ 

Punches ____ 


PISTON RODS 

Locomotive Piston Rods__ 

Marine Engine Piston Rods_ 

Stationary Engine Piston Rods_._ 

Steam Hammer and Rock Drill Piston Rods 


TYPE 


: A 

A 

A, D 
J 
J 
A 
: A 


E 

E, F 

A 

! Special 


A 

D, A 
A 


j A, D 
! Special 
{ Special 
I A, D 


A 

A 

A, D, E, G 

Special 

Special 

A 

K 


A 

A 

A 

A 


HEAT 

treatment 

NO. 


2 

1 and 
Z 

Annealed 
Annealed 
1 and Z 
Z 


Normal 

Annealed- 

Normal 

Z 


1 and Z 

Z 

Z 


Z 


z 


z 

1 and Z 
As required 


Z 

G 


Z 

z 

z 

z 







































.^0 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 



TYPE 

HEAT 

TREATMENT 

NO. 

PLATE 



Artillery Plate _ _ __ 

Special 


Boiler (Marine, Locomotive and Stationary) 



Plates _ _ ___ 

E 

Normal- 

Deck, Hull and Ship Plates.. _ _ 

E 

Annealed 

Normal 

Fire Box Plates. ___ __ 

E 

Normal- 

Protective Deck Plates. 

Special 

Annealed 

Armor Plate __ .. 

Special 


R 



Rails.. _. __ 

Special 


Rail Frogs and Switches , _ 

Special 


Rifle Barrels and Small Arms. . 

A, D 


Rivets.. _ _ _ __ 

E 

Normal 

Rods. __ 

All types 

• 

Rope.. - _ . . _ 

A, D 

As required 

Rounds_ __ . -- ... 

All types 


R( tarv Rock Cutters_ 

H 

6 

ROLLED MATERIAL 



Bars_ __ _ 

All types 


Billets _ _ ... 

( i 


Blooms.. __ 

4 4 


Flats_ . .... .... ___ 

4 4 


Rounds ._ __ _ __ 

4 4 


Slabs _ . _ 

4 4 


Squares.. _ 

4 4 


S 



Safe Deposit Vaults ... 

Special 


Sheets__ . _ .. . _ 

All types 


Shells . _ ... 

Special 


Ship Plate 

E 

Normal 

Side Rods. _ _ _ 

A 

1 and 2 

Spindles.. ._ _ _ 

D or K 

6 

Springs and Spring Steel 

D 

4 

Squares _ . _ _ 

All Types 


Stationarv'Boiler Plate.__ _ _ 

E 

Normal 

Stationary Engine Piston Rods_ . 

A 

2 

Stay Bolts . __ 

F 

Normal 

Steam Hammer and Rock Drill Piston Rods 

A 

2 












































VANADIUM STEELS 


31 


Some Applications of Vanadium Steels—Continued 



- --- ■ 

HEAT 


Tvi>p; 

TREATMENT 



NO. 

s 



Stern ^\heel Shafting 

Structural Steel 

A, D 

All types 
E, F 

D, K,H 

H 

D and 


Superheater Tube.s 

Shear Knife Steel 

1, Normal 

Saw Steel _ 

Switches 

() 

(> 

T 

Special 


"I'-Bars 

Tanks for Compressed Oxygen, Carbonic Acid, 

All types 

1 

! 

Hydrogen, etc 

A 

2 

1 

As recjuired 
() 

l ender Truck Axles 

A 

Tie Rods 

A 

Tires (Locomotive and Grinding Mill! 

Tool Steels and Tools 

i\ 

G 

H, K 

'rransmission Parts 

Special 

(> 

A 


TUBING 



Automobile Boiler Tubing 

Bicycle Tubing. 

E 

E 

Annealed 

1 and 2 

1, Normal 

1, Normal 

Annealed- 

Condenser Tubing 

Feedwater Heater Tubing 

Torpedo Tubes. 

Marine Boiler Tubimr ! 

E, F 

E, F 
Special 

E, F 

V 


Normal 

^ alve Stem Forgings 

A 

2 

w 1 



atch Springs _ _ 

Wheels_ 

D, Special 

4 

D, Special 

As required 

WIRE 



(nbles... 

Springs and Spring Steel 

A, D 

D 

As requinsl 

4 

z 1 



Z-Bars.. 

All types 



Note. In all cases where normal steel is recommended, the product of the mill 
should preferably be annealed at a dull red heat to remove rolling strains. 

























































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34 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Type “A” Vanadium Steels 

This is perhaps the most adaptable of all types of Vana¬ 
dium Steel. It has great static strength and ductility, with 
stupendous resistance to shock and fatigue. 

Under trip-hammer dies or drawing dies, it works compar¬ 
ably with soft open-hearth steel. 

In drop forging, it flows readily in the die, withstands high 
temperatures without deterioration and takes a high finish. 

It is easily machined. 

It is essentially an oil tempering forging steel, though it is 
much used for casehardened gears and other parts where 
great strength of core is required. These parts are usually 
heat-treated to give an elastic limit of 100,000 to 110,000 
pounds, with a tensile strength of 120,000 to 130,000 pounds 
per square inch; an elongation in 2 inches of 18% to 20% 
and a reduction of area of about 60%. Much higher elastic 
limits are regularly obtained for crank shafts, propeller 
shafts, etc., when desired. 

Casehardened gears from mild Type “A” Chrome-Vana¬ 
dium steel, carbon under .25%, are being extensively used 
on automobiles. The case is hard, tough, strong and wear- 
resistant to a very high degree. The hardness is about 90, 
scleroscope test. It is strongly coherent to the core and 
gives no trouble from flaking, powdering or flowing under 
pressure. The core is very strong and tough, the physical 
properties being about: 


Elastic Limit 

Ultimate 

Strength 

Elongation 
^ in 2 Inches 

Reduction 
of Area 

180,000 

200,000 

8% 



The heat treatment of casehardened gears is usually a 
double one. After carbonizing, they are reheated to 900° C. 
and quenched in oil, then reheated to 800° or 825° C., 
quenched in water and Anally heated to about 200° C. in 
oil for half an hour to release strains. 











VANADIUM STEELS 


35 


Type “A” Vanadium Steels 

Drop Forged Type “A” Vanadium Steel Crank Shaft 

Distorted by repeated blows under 2500 lb. Steam Hammer with no sign 

of a fracture at any point. 


Due to the shock and impact 



this is much more severe test 


than if done under gradual 


pressure of hydraulic presses. 


Analysis of this Steel 


Sulphur .... 0 . 051 % 
Phosphorus . . 0.010 
Manganese . . 0.43 
Carbon ..... 0.33 
Chromium . . 0.96 
Vanadium . . 0.18 


An excellent .355* Carbon Steel shaft was subjected to like test but could not be 
distorted to the same extent without fracture, the force exerted to an equal number of 
blows being only one-fourth that required to distort the Type “A” Vanadium Steel shaft. 

Statically, an untreated bar of Type “A” steel gave the following figures : 

Elastic Limit, lbs. per scp inch . 106,233 Elongation in 2 inches, per cent. 23.8 

Tensile Strength.. . 123,070 Reduction of area “ “ 49.4 



Drop Forged Automobile Axle—Twisted Gold 














VANADIUM STEELS 


,16 


Type “A” Vanadium Steels 



Knot Tied Cold 1-inch Diameter Bar 

100,000 lbs. per square inch elastic limit 



Drop Forged Automobile Steering Knuckle 

Maximum diameter of barrel IH in., minimum diameter in. Diameter of collar m in. 
Maximum diameter of shank 1 in., minimum ^ in. Diameter 
of shank boss % in. Arm length 6}^ in. 



opring i^oiJ 

Steel «« x 7-16 in. was hardened in oil and then subjected to crushing test in 
hjdrauhc press. It required 210,000 lbs. to distort and over 400.(>00 lbs. final 
pressure to bend to present condition. This test was rei)eated 
on opposite end of coil without sign of fracture 





VANADIUM STEELS 


37 


Type “D” 


Phis type is essentially suited for manufacture of springs, 
and is also used for gears in constant mesh, rifle barrels, high 
tensile wire and similar work. 


In springs it has double the co-efficient of safe working- 
load of carbon spring steel; it is easily “welded” and in ser¬ 
vice can be repeatedly overloaded without serious deteriora¬ 
tion; it has mi elastic limit of from 180,000 to 225,000 pounds 
per square inch, with tensile strength ranging from 190,000 
to 250,000 pounds. Spring makers guarantee it to have 
three times the life of carbon steel springs. 



Test of short seven-leaf Automobile Spring, showing elastic limit at fibre 
stress of 214,000 lbs. per square inch 


A comparative test of Type “D” vs. chrome-nickel sjiring 
steel: 

Both test pieces 25 inches long, of same width and gauge, 
with a 4-inch arc. In six iilunges flat against the face 
of testing machine— 

Type “D” steel took permanent set of fV inch. 

Chrome-nickel steel took permanent set of ^ inch. 








38 


VANADIUM STEELS 



Type “D” Vanadium Steel Locomotive Driving Spring 

Under load corresponding to stress of 110,000 lbs. per square inch, this spring withstood 

23,620 compressions 

Under load corresponding to stress of somewhat less than 90,000 lbs. per square inch, a 
Carbon Steel Spring has either broken or the steel became "dead” and 
lost its camber before reaching 10,000 deflections 



Comparative tests of Vanadium and Carbon Steel Locomotive Springs 
(Tested b.v American Locomotive Compan.vt 


See next page) 

































































































































































































































































VANADIUM STEELS 


39 


Spring Tests, Type “D” 

(See Curv’es on page 38.) 


The Vanadium Spring was Tested: 

1. To 02,700 pounds with 34 -inch centres. 

2. To 92,000 “ “ 80 “ 

3. To 94,000 “ “ 30 “ 

On second test. Elastic Limit was reached at 85,000 pounds, or 234,500 pounds Fibre 
Stress with Permanent Set of .48 inches. 

The Third Test was repeated three times without the least variation from recorded 
heights. 


The Carbon Spring was Tested: 

1. To 44,000 pounds with 30-inch centres. 

2. To 89,280 “ “ 30 “ 

3. To 84,520 “ “ 30 “ 

4. To 89,280 “ “ 30 “ 

On Second Test, Elastic Limit was reached at 65,000 pounds, or 180,000 pounds Fibre 
Stress with Permanent Set of 1.12 inches. 

On Third Test it took an additional set of .26 inches and on Fourth Test, plates 1, 2, 
3, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 failed at the centre. 



Vanadium Steel Spring 

Taken from an automobile that was completely wrecked 
by running into a stone wall 


I hese tests indicate that \aiiadiuiii Steel is far superior 
to carbon steel and is particularly to be recommended 
where the .severest service conditions are encountered. 


40 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Type “D” 

. D gears possess great strength and toughness, a 

high degree of hardness and great resistance to wear. Their 
physical properties average about as follows: 

Elastic limit-200,000 to 220,000 pounds per square inch. 

Ultimate strength 21.’),000 to 250,000 pounds per square inch. 

Elongation in 2 inches, 12.0% to 10.0%. 

Reduction of area_45.0% to .35.0%. 

The heat treatment generally used is to quench in oil 
from a temperature of 900° C. and draw back, preferably 
m lead, at 450° C. 

Chrome-\ anadium steels retain their elastic limit and 
hardness to a remarkable degree at elevated temperatures, 
and on this account Type “D” steel has proved a very 
efficient material for gas engine exhaust valves. 

Type “E” 

This type of steel is especially designed for casehardening. 
Ihe essential features of good casehardening steel, the re¬ 
sults obtainable from Type “E” casehardened Vanadium 
Steel and the logical reasons involved, have already been 
hilly dealt with on page 18 et seq: 



Type “E” Vanadium Casehardened Steel 
(3 times natural size) 

H-in. bar casehardened by the process detailed on page 19 
Note the tough break of the soft core, in conjunction with the depth of 
casing for such a small article 












VANADIUM STEELS 


41 


Briefly epitomized, the advantages of Type “E” steel com- 
])iise (1) strong case, (2) powerlnl resistance to abrasion of 
such case, (3) close cohesion of such case to the softer core, 
(4) absence of “flaking away” or powdering away of such 
case, (5) a core which is exceedingly ductile and at the same 
time has great strength and resistance to disintegration. 



Type “E” Casehardened Vanadium Steel 
(3 times natural size) 

This steel was casehardened in the perfect round section, and after quenching, was 
beaten out COLL) to the shape shown, under a heavy power hammer. 

Note strong adhesion of the case to the core and the ductile nature of the core 


Type “G” 

This U^pe is designed for locomotive tires. It has high 
static strength, and withstands 1260 alternations before 
fracture under the alternating imjiact test, or more than 
double the number witlistood by the regular grade of tire 
steel. 
















42 


VANADIUM STKKI.S 


It is very honiogeiieoiis and iiiacliiiies quite readily; it 
conihines su])erlative resistanee to wear with an excellent 
adliesi\’e surface qualities ot the utmost importance in a 
tire. 

Type “H” 

Ihis type ol steel is intended especially" for cutting tools, 
such as rotary cutters, etc. With some slight modifications 
as to carbon and manganese content, it is admirably adapted 
for use in manufacture of saw blades. It tempers accurately 
and evenly^, and although hard, is extremely" tough. For 
.saws, this t.vpe pre.sents these special advantages: Saws 



Type “H” Vanadium Steel Saw w-ith blade coiled 

After remnining thus for a year, the blade was released, 
and returned to perfect alignment 



VANADIUM STEELS 


43 


will not craiiii) in the cut; will not develop kinks; ean he 
easily set without danger of fracturing the teeth; will retain 
the cutting edge more than twice as long as saws made 
from the regular carbon steel; and will hold the set and cut 
faster than any other saws. 


Steel Castings 



Type “J” Vanadium Steel Locomotive Transmission Bar, 

Bent Cold 


Type “J” 

This type of steel is designed expressly for eastings, which 
are thereby rendered solid and more nearlj^ perfect. It pours 
quietly and freely and is readily welded; it has approximately 
‘25 per cent increased elastic limit and 15 ])er cent greater 
tensile strength than the regular carbon steel casting; the 
ductility is maintained and there is no impairment of the 
machining qualities. 

Type “J” steel is extremely tough and close in structure. 
It withstands under the Turner formula about the same num- 



44 


VANADIUM STEELS 


her of alternations as ordinary forged steel of the same car¬ 
bon content, and twice that of the regular steel casting. 

This latter })oint is of supreme importance. Almost in¬ 
variably the service failure of a casting is not traceable to 
any lack of original static‘strength and ductility but rather 
to the fact that it has deteriorated rapidly under the vibra¬ 
tion and repeated stresses incidental to its practical usage. 
It is not claiming too much to say that Vanadium Steel cast¬ 
ings ap])roximate in "dife’ qualities those of forged carbon steel. 



Type “J” Vanadium Steel Engine Frame Section 
Subjected to 20 blows from a oOOO-lb. tup dropping from a height of 18 ft. in the clear; 

supports four feet apart 

R<‘gnlar steel frame section invariably breaks on either the first or second blow 



Type “J” (Special)—45 in. dia. Vanadium Steel Mill Pinion 
A Nickel Steel Pinion, made by the same firm to same pattern, and placed 
companion service in the same rolling mill, was worn out completely, while the 
Vanadium Steel pinion continued in service and presented this appear¬ 
ance after rolling 100% more tonnage than the nickel steel pinion 


in 







VANADIUM STEELS 


45 


Type “J” 



Type “J” Vanadium Cast Steel Engine Bed Plate for Marine Work 
Weight, 1725 lbs. Tensile strength, 77,760 lbs. Elastic limit, 45,980 lbs. 
Elongation in 2 inches, 30?t; Reduction of area, 53.5^^. 



Type “J” Vanadium Cast Steel Main Frame 
for consolidation locomotives 
Weight, 5590 lbs. Tensile strength, 81,580 lbs. Elastic limit, 47.i:KJ lbs. 
Elongation in 2 inches, 30.5^; Reduction of area, 47.95f. 








46 


VANADIUM STKEI.S 


Type “J” 



Type J Vanadium Cast Steel Bed Plate for Upsetting Machine, 

weight 12,900 pounds 

Tensile strength, 79,840 lbs. Elastic limit, 45,990 lbs. 

Klongatiojj in 2 inches. 27..5?^; Reduction of area, 51.45t. 



lype “J” Vanadium Cast Steel Locomotive Cylinder 

Weight 7355 lbs. Tensile strength, 80,620 lbs. Elastic limit, 48,920 lbs. 
Elongation in 2 inches, 24.69^; Reduction of area, 44.29f. 









VANADIUM STEELS 


47 


Type “J” 



Type “J” Vanadium Cast Steel Locomotive Driving Wheel Center, 

72 Inches Diameter 

WeiKht, 34r)0 lbs. Tensile streiiKtli, 75,740 lbs. Elastic limit, 47,080 lbs. 
ElonKUtiou in 2 inches, 3{H; Reduction of area, 51. 


AllV anadiuin Steel Castings are groiified generically under 
'I'yjie “J,” but it must be distinctly understood that T 3 ^pe 
“J” does not invariabh^ exliibit exactly the same chemical 
eomi)osition. For example, the rolling mill pinion shown on 
page 44 runs between .40 and .50 in carbon content, while 
standard Type “J” is given at .^25 carbon. Other variations 
are made depending on the class of service retpiired. 

This is true of all types of Vanadinm Steels described here¬ 
in; before adopting any type as the fixed standard, a proper 
consideration of its intended ap})lication should determine 
both the composition and the siibsecpient heat treatment. 






48 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Type “K” 

I his type ol steel is intended for the making of piinelies, 
dies, etc. It will not upset, is hard and tough and offers 
the ultimate resistance to crystallization attainable in steel of 
this “temper.” 




5-l() 

1422 Holes 


i:V16 

4402 Holes 


13-16 Spl Die 
545:1 Holes 







VANADIUM STEELS 


49 


Special Types 




Vanadium Steel Gas Engine Piston Rod 
Rough Forging and Finished Piece 


il/leven nickel steel piston rods in blowing engines of the 
gas type were broken in one year at a large blast furnace 
plant. Owing to its antifatigiie and non-crystallizing 
properties, as well as to its increased strength and elastic; 
limit, Vanadium steel forgings have been substitutetl. The 
following physical tests were obtained: 


Longitudinal 

Test 

Tensile strength_11S,700 Il)s. 

Elastic limit_ Ihs. 

h^longation in 2 inches__ '20% 
Reduction of area_ '5^1% 


Transverse 

Test 

108.820 lbs. 
})0,8(>0 Ihs. 
IT% 


Radial 

Test 

112,.5()0 lbs. 
08,040 lbs. 
1 . 5 % 

41..8%, 


Heat treatment consisted in quenching in water from 
907 deg. C. and drawing back at 710 deg. C. 


















50 


VANADIUM STKKLS 


Special Types 



Vanadium Crucible Steel Cylinder Casting for Torpedo 
Tensile strength. 80,000 lbs. Elastic limit, 60,000 lbs. 
Elongation in 2 inches, 22^^; Reduction of area, 43^6 
Flattened under a steam hammer 



Type “H” Vanadium Steel Hot Forging Dies 

Average life of Carbon Steel Dies, 2 days 

Ihese Vanadium Steel dies ran four months in the same machine on the same work 
showing 60 times the life of carbon steel 







VANADIUM STEELS 


51 


Special Types 



Pneumatic Hammer Rivetinj^ Die 

Used in shipbuilding work, in continuous service fourteen months. Keciuirements 
drastic, as many of the ’s-in. rivets are redriven cold against large flat 
bottom riveter. A large American shipbuilding concern reports the 
normal life of the tool steel dies they formerly used was ten 
hours, the main trouble being that the constant vibra¬ 
tion crystallized the shank of the dies and the.v 
broke at point indicated by arrow 



Reddington Flue Cutter Tool 

Removed after cutting 5200 flues. Highest comparative record by other steel tested 

by same railway, 1000 flues 

One large railway shop cut its consumption of this tool down from 1049 carbon 
steel tools to 68 Vanadium steel cutters in one year, and increased 
the total number of flues cut by 7134 pieces 






52 


VANADIUM STEELS 


Machining, Forging and Welding Qualities 

The ^ aiiadiiiin steels are readily forged and give no trouble 
in the fire. It is of course to he noted that the same precau¬ 
tions are to be observed in their initial heating as are accorded 
to any high-grade steel. With regard to drop-forging, all 
the Vanadium steels flow readily in the dies and no trouble 
is experienced in the process, a fact which in this respect 
brings them into sharp contrast with some other alloy steels 
for which great merit is claimed as to mechanical attributes. 

1 he ease with which the ^ anadium steels can be machined 
is a matter of deep interest to the practical engineer. Broadly 
speaking, it will be sufficient to say that they are machined 
as easily as carbon steels of the same “temper.” 

\ anadium itself helps the welding qualities of iron, and 
this fact, coupled with its intensifying strengthening action 
(already alluded to), on such ingredients as are themselves 
mimical to successful welding (thereby greatly decreasing 
the amounts of such ingredients necessary to be used), makes 
the \ anadium steels the most weldable of all the alloy steels. 


Uniformity of Vanadium Steel 

Vanadium steels, properly made by means of the right 
description of alloy (this point is dealt with fully on page 53) 
are absolutely uniform. In considering this question of uni¬ 
formity it should not be overlooked that: (1) As Wanadium 
will perform its scavenging function first, the amount of 
\ anadium that w ill remain m the steel will necessarily de¬ 
pend upon the degree to which the metal has been deoxidized 
before the Vanadium has been added; (2) As detailed herein¬ 
before at some length, an enormous readjustment of static 
and dynamic equilibrium takes place at the calescence jioint 
and therefore the static properties of two identical Vanadium 
steels, one of wdiich has been finished or annealed above the 
calescence point and the other finished or annealed below^ the 
calescence point, must necessarily differ considerably. From 
this it IS obvious that a conclusion of non-uniformity must 

not be hastily reached as the result of a simple test in one' 
direction. 


VANADIUM STEELS 


53 


lo these must be added the personal ecpiation and those 
differences of shop practice which must exist in all steel 
making, so that degrees of limitation must necessarily be 
introduced. 

Recapitulating 

It may be said that the marvelous results in steel herein¬ 
before instanced which follow from the proper application of 
“Amervan” Ferro-Vanadium are caused by its expelling the 
injurious oxygen and nitrogen contents, by its toughening 
the carbonless portion of the iron, rendering it more imper¬ 
vious to the passage of carbides through it (thus ensuring a 
generally sorbitic distribution of those carbides in annealed 
steel, and a perfect distribution of emulsified carbides in 
tempered steel) and by its greatly intensifying the static 
strengthening action of those carbides. 


Ferro-Vanadium Alloy 

“Amervan” Ferro-Vanadium made by the American 
Vanadium Company is produced chemically, has a low fusing 
jioint, contains jwactically no carbon and ranges in Vana¬ 
dium content from 30 to 40%—quality, quantities and 
deliveries being guaranteed absolutely. 

As V anadinm produces its various effects through its action 
on totally different components of the steel, it will readily be 
seen that: 


1. Two Vanadium alloys may easily lie of the same ulti¬ 
mate composition analytically and yet give widely differing 
properties to steel on account of their elements being differ¬ 
ently combined. The laboratory determination of this would 
be tedious and commercially imjiossible, though the micro- 
sco})e helps much, but manufacturing precautions can assure 
the reaching of the desired end. 


*2. Tlie greater the degree of fusibility and solubility pos¬ 
sessed by the Ferro-Vanadium, the more satisfactorily it should 
behave, other things being equal. C'ertain definite alloys, 
containing iron, silicon and Vanadium are much more fusible 
and soluble in molten steel than plain alloys of iron and 
^"anadium, and their use is advantageous in many cases. 






54 


VANADIUM STKEUS 


3. Ow ing’ to the povverliil affinity of \ anadinni for oxygen 
and to the fact tliat the major portion of it is recpiirecl for 
other jnirposes, ^ anadinm alloys shonld only he added under 
deoxidizing conditions to metal that has previously been 
as well deoxidized as possible in the ordinary circumstances 
under the control of the steel maker. 


4. Lastly, it must be remembered that, chemically si)eak- 
ing, \ anadium is the radicle of a powerful acid, and therefore 
be kept from contact at a high heat w'lth any material 
of a basic nature, such as calcareous slag. 

Before closing, it may be of interest to touch briefly on the 
various simjile courses of procedure which should be followed 
for the successful manufacture of Vanadium steel by the 
different commercial processes in common use. 


The Crucible Process 


In the crucible process the charge is made up of such ordi¬ 
nary stock as the specifications may call for; any chrome or 
nickel may be inclucled m the initial charge; some makers add 
the \ anadium to the charge; others w^ait until the charge 
IS thoroughly dead melted or “killed,” when they add the 
\ anadium alloy, avoiding contact wdth the slag as far 
as jmssible, together with such extra manganese, in the form 
of ferro-manganese, as the special circumstances of the case 
may dictate. After the expiration of 20 to 80 minutes the 
contents of the crucible are to be skimmed and poured as 
usual. 


Acid Open-Hearth Process 

In acid open-hearth practice, the furnace charge should 
)e melted as usual, wmrked dowm wdth ore to a carbon per¬ 
centage at least thirty points above the jiercentage of 
carbon to which it is desired to work down the bath, and 
preferably “shaken down” for the remainder of the way. At 
the finish, the slag should be “supersilicated,” that^s it 
should contain at least o2% of silica, and should not contain 
excess of oxide of iron; in other words, in melter's parlance it 
should be “neutral.” The fracture of the slag, and its “thick¬ 
ness 111 proportion to the heat jiresent, will tell the story to 
the practical eye. Any necessary proportion of ferro-chrome. 


VANADIUM STEPM.S 


55 


warmed on the breast of the furnaee is next added, and a few 
minutes later the ferro-manganese and “warmed” silicon pig. 
After their incorporation the flame is “blanketed” and the 
\ anadinm alloy added in large ])ieees; three minutes will 
suffice for its working through the bath, which is meanwhile 
rabbled. Tapping and teeming are then performed as usual. 
*Vny nickel may be charged at the' ontse't. 


Basic Open-Hearth Process 

In basic open-hearth })ractic*e the furnaee is charged with 
good stock and limestone, any reepiired nickel being also 
added. The charge is melted and workeel down to about the 
same ])oint as in acid practice, then “shaken elown” to the 
necessary degree of decarburization. The slag must be in 
good condition and free from excess of cutting oxides. The 
necessary ferro-chrome is now charged, due allowance being 
made for loss; in good practice a charge of 1.3% of chromium 
(in ferro-chromium) should give 1% of chromium in the 
residual steel. It may be necessary to closely follow this 
addition with a little fluorsj^ar in order to keej) the slag suffi¬ 
ciently open. Ferro-manganese is then added in lump form 
to the bath, and when the metal additions are incorporated, 
the furnace is tapped. After a small quantity of steel has run 
into the ladle, the Ferro-Vanadium and any further high 
grade ferro-silicon required, both broken up small and pre¬ 
ferably preheated, are added, all additions being comj^leted 
before slag appears. Rabbling the contents of the ladle 
greatly assists matters. 

Bessemer and Tropenas Practice 

In Tropenas practice the converter is charged and blown 
as usual, and “deoxidation” performed in the converter with 
manganese and silicon. The Ferro-Vanadium is added in the 
ladle as in l^asic practice, the metal being “skimmed” as it 
issues from the converter. Nickel would be added with the 
charge and chrome before or with the deoxidants. 

The same remarks would apply to Bessemer jjractice as to 
Tropenas practice. The j)re]jaration of high grade alloy steels 
is not usually attempted in the Bessemer converter. 


56 


VANADIUM STP:ELS 


“Loss” in Addition 


The percentage of “loss” concomitant with the addition 
of \ anadinni has often been asked. For ol)vions reasons it is 
impossible to give a simple answer on this point, as that por¬ 
tion of \ anadiiim used up in doing scavenging work j)asses 
into slag. This point has been dealt with on page 15. 


Vanadium in Cast Iron 


Cast Iron may be regarded as a more or less impure steel, 
containing, in addition to the usual elements present in steel, 
a coniparatively large quantity of carbon in the form of graph¬ 
ites, interspersed throughout its structure in the form of gran¬ 
ules, flecks or plates. The graphite destroys the continuity 
of the metal, and in consequence, the limit of strength of cast 
iron is low as compared with steel. 

It also follows that any improvement conferred upon cast 
iron by an alloy must necessarily not be as great as in the case 
of the more homogeneous steel. In the case of cast iron also, 
\\ e ha\ e a metal that is subjected to no work or heat treat¬ 
ment to develop its latent qualities. Nevertheless the bene¬ 
fits M hich accrue from the addition of small percentages of 
Vanadium to cast iron, especially in chill and cylinder cast¬ 
ings, are \er 3 " great, even if they are not so spectacular in 
their nature as those obtained in steel. 

Vanadium not only cleanses the iron from oxides and nit¬ 
rides, but also exercises a very strong fining effect on the 
grain of the iron, with the result that porousness is eliminated 
and sound castings are produced. Strength, rigidity and 
resistance to wear ai;e all increased by the addition of Vana¬ 
dium to gray cast iron. In the case of chilled cast iron, 
yanadium jiroduces a deejier, stronger chill and one less 
liable to spall or flake. 


Te^U: As a result of two years test on a jiair of cylinders 
made of > anadium cast iron, one of the large railroads sped- 
tied Vanadium cast iron for the cylinders of 183 new locomo¬ 
tives built during the past year or two. The pair of cylinders 
under test gave upward of 20(),()0() miles with only micro- 


VANADIUM STEELS 


57 






meter wear, wheareas ordinary loeomotive cylinders w ill 
show about ^-inch wear per 100,000 miles. Comparative tests 
have been made by the builders of these locomotives between 
iron containing Vanadium and the iron to which no Vana¬ 
dium was added. The average of ten consecutive days' 
tests was as follows: 

Transverse I'ensile 

Plain Cast Iron_ -2180 -24-2-25 lbs. 

Vanadium Cast Iron _ _ -2818 -28728 “ 


The transverse tests were made on bars 1 inch scpiare, 1-2 
inches between supports; the bars were machined all over and 
consec}uently were absolutely comparable, which is not the 
case with bars tested as thev are cast. The tensile tests were 
also machined. In machining the Vanaflinm cast iron cylin¬ 
ders, the effect of Vanadium was noticed in the machining 
(qualities of the iron; the chi|)s were longer, tougher and showed 
considerable springiness. Another concern making cylinders 
for gas engines has recently rejiorted results as follows: 





r 

rransverse 

Tensile 

A 

Plain 

Iron 

__ 

2860 

21000 lbs. 

AV 

^hlna( 

lium 

Iron 

8800 

24p00 “ 

B 

Plain 

Iron 


8487 

-25000 “ 

BV 

Vainu 

lium 

Iron 

8770 

27650 “ 


These transverse tests were made on bars 1 inch square, 
12 inches between supports, and we understand were not 
machined. The “AV” and “IIV” cast iron, containing 
Vanadium, have stood 750 jiounds water jiressure with 
'^-inch thickness of metal. 


Application: In apjilying Vanadium to cast iron, it must 
be remembered that nothing like the heat of molten steel is 
at hand, consequently^ one should use a finely crushed or 
powdered alloy of low melting jioint. As the melting jioint 
depends directly u})on the jiercentage of Vanadium contained 
in the alloy, a Ferro-Vanadium containing under 85% Vana¬ 
dium should be used. 


Cupola Iron: Where the iron is melted in the cupola, it is 
neces.sarv to add the Ferro-Vanadium to the ladle; and as the 











58 


VANADIUM STEKLS 


uniouiit of lieut uvtiiltil)lc lor dissolving’ the Ferro-^ iiniidiuni 
is limited, the iron should he tapped out as hot as possible aud 
a ladle used that has just been euijitied iu order to eonserve 
as much heat as jiossible. After the bottom of the ladle is 
covered with a few inches of iron, the finely crushed or pow¬ 
dered Ferro-^ anadium is added by sprinkling it on the stream 
as it flows down the spout to the ladle; in this way advantage 
is taken of all the available heat and also of the mixing effect 
of the stream as it strikes the iron in the ladle. After the Vana- 
<lium is added the contents of the ladle should be well stirred 
and allowed to stand a few moments in order to ensure 
thorough incorporation and complete reaction. Owing to the 
limited heat available in euj)ola iron, it has been found that 
the addition of .10 to .12% Vanadium (ecpiivalent to 4J^ to 
5 ounces of 35% Ferro-Vanadium per 100 i)ounds of metal) is 
all that should be attempted ordinarilj’^. 


Air Furnace Iron: In the case of the higher grade air fur¬ 
nace iron, with its reserve of available furnace heat, this 
I)rocedure is very simiile: after the charge is melted and 15 
to 20 minutes before ta])j)ing, the Ferro-Vanadium is added 
and the biith well stirred or rabbled. The addition of .18 
to .20% \ anadium is recommended in this case, equivalent 
to 10 to 11 ounces of 35% ferro-vanadium per 100 pounds 
of metal. 


^lalleahle Iron. Fests of \ anadium in malleable cast iron 
have been reported satisfactory in every way, the fibre of the 
iron showing much cleaner and the tensile strength improved 
about 12%; the castings were also much stiffer than ordi¬ 
nary malleable castings. 


Vanadium in Wrought Iron 

The incorporation of Vanadium in wrought or puddled iron 
IS theoretically much more difficult, because wrought iron is 
essentially a preeiiiitated metal, permeated more or less by 
frozen mother liquor of iron (in which latter the Vanadium is 
more esiieeially contained), and also because the slag of the 
puddling Inrnaee is strongly basic in its nature and removes 
\ anadium from the bath inneh as it removes ])hosphorus 






VANADIUM STEELS 


59 


We have never met with a Swedish ])uddled iron containing’ 
mncli over ().0‘2% of Vanadium, while the acid open-hearth 
steel made from pig iron smelted from the same ore fre- 
cpiently contains 0.08% of Vanadium and upwards. 

It will thus be seen that only in wrought iron does the 
correct addition of Vanadium present any difficulty, and re¬ 
sults follow with certainty as long as due cognizance be taken 
of the simple facts concerning its })roperties and attributes, 
as detailed in the foregoing. 


Conclusion 

In fact, Vanadium has jilaced in the hands of the thinking 
metallurgist a resource whose power can hardly at present be 
estimated. 

l^roken railway axles and engine frames should soon be 
placed in the history of the past; an amount of energy can 
be transmitted by or stored up in a shaft of incredible light¬ 
ness; springs may be made nearly half the weight of the best 
now existing and yet possess better tenacity and longer life; 
ships can be driven at increased speeds with safety; the flying- 
machine problem comes a step nearer solution; while the 
(questions of the submarine, torpedoes, armorplate, big guns 
and their carriages, projectiles and the like, enter on a new 
j)hase, and in bridge building spans become possible that 
were not contemplated in the most sanguine moments of the 
designer of a few years ago. These are all rendered possible by 
the judicious harnessing of an element which, with its com¬ 
pounds, was looked upon up to a few years ago almost as a 
chemical curiosity. 

The ap])lication of Vanadium to steel manufacture consti¬ 
tutes perhaps its most important employment. ^Vry prom¬ 
ising results have been obtained Iw means of its adajitation to 
co])per and to some of the other metallic alloys, but here a 
totally different .set of conditions is encountered and much 
work is now lieing done in this direction. In cast iron too, 
changes little short of revolutionary are daily being wrought 
bv the trulv wonderful element \ anadium. 




60 


VANADIUM SIEELS 


“Amervan” Ferro-Vanadium 

“The Master Alloy” 

is used in the manufacture of Vanadium Iron 
and Steel by these companies and many others 


VANADIUM CAST IRON 


Capitol Foundry Company-Hartford, Conn. 

Du Bois Foundry Company_ _Cold Spring, X. V. 

Manufacturers Foundry Company_ _ -_Waterbury, Conn. 

National Malleable Casting Company_Chicago, Ill. 

llosedale Foundry & Machine Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Ross-Meehan Foundry Company_. .Chattanooga, Term. 

\\ . P. Taylor Company-Buffalo, N. Y. 

Waterbury Castings Company-Materbury, C'onn. 

Wellsburg Foundry & Machine Company_Wellsburg, W. Va. 


VANADIUM CAST STEEL—(Crucible) 


( rucible Steel Casting C omj)any-Lansdowne, Pa. 

Crucible Steel Casting Company_Cleveland, Ohio 

Damascus Crucible Steel Casting Company_New Brighton, Pa. 

Lebanon Steel Casting Company_Lebanon, Pa. 

Michigan Crucible Steel Casting Company _ __Detroit, Midi. 

Riverside Steel Casting Company---Newark, N. J. 

Siyyer Steel Casting Company-, _Milwaukee, Wis. 

Mest Steel Casting Company-Cleveland, Ohio 

(Open Hearth) 

American Steel Foundries Company_Chicago, Ill. 

Mackintosh-Hemphill Coinjiany_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Malleable Iron Fittings Company-Branford, Conn. 

Mesta Machine Company-Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Montreal Steel Company...-Montreal, Canada 

I enn Steel Casting & Machine Company_Chester, Pa. 

Pittsburgh Steel Foundries_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Pratt & Letch worth_Buffalo N* Y. 

I nion Steel Casting Company-Pittsburgh, Pa. 

I nited Engineering & Machine Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Wheeling Mould & Foundry Company. _ Wheeling W Ya 


VANADIUM MALLEABLE IRON—(See Cast Iron) 
VANADIUM TOOL STEEL 


Bethlehem Steel Company_ 

Colonial Steel Company_ 

Crucible Steel Company of America 

Cyclops Steel Company_ 

Halcomb Steel Company_ 

Heller Bros. Company_ 

Midvale Steel Coniiiany_ 

Vanadium Alloys Stei'l Company_ 

Vulcan Crucible StiM'l (’onijiany_ 


South Bethlehem, Pa. 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Titusville, Pa. 
Syracuse, N. Y. 
Newark, N. J. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Latrobe, Pa. 
-Vlitpiippa, Pa. 


VANADIUM FORCINGS—(Crank Shafts, Axles, Piston Rods, etc.) 

American Locomotive ('ompany_New York N Y 

Carnegie Steel ('ompany-V---^Pittsburgh’, Pa. 

L. L. Driggs & ( ompany-Xe,,. N. Y. 

Erie l^orge ( ompany_ _ Erie, Pa 

Mesta Machine (\)mpany..._ . _ _ ..Pittsburgh, Pa. 













































VANADIUM STEELS 


61 


DROP FORGINGS—(Gears, etc.) 


Baker Drop Forge Company_Jackson, Mich. 

C’reseent Droj) Forge Company_Hulton, Pa. 

L. L. Driggs & Company_New York, N. Y. 

Driggs Seabury Ordnanee Corporation_ Sharon, Pa. 

Park Drop hYrge Company_Cleveland, Ohio 

Transue-Williams Company_Alliance, Ohio 

Warner Gear Company_Muncie, Ind. 

J. H. Williams & Company_Brooklyn, N .Y. 

Wyman-Gordon Company_ _ .Worcester, Mass. 


VANADIUM AUTOMOBILE CYLINDERS 


C’apitol Foundry Company_ _Hartford, (hmn. 

Du Bois Foundry Company _Cold Spring, N. Y. 

Manufacturers Foundry Company_Waterbury, Conn. 

Waterbury Castings Company_Waterbury, Conn. 


VANADIUM MISCELLANEOUS SHAPES 


Bethlehem Steel Company _South Bethlehem, Fa. 

Carnegie Steel Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Colonial Steel Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Crucible Steel Company of America_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Firth-Sterling Steel Company_ _MeKeesport, Pa. 

Halcomb Steel Company_Syraeuse, N. Y. 

Midvale Steel Com|)any_Philadelphia, Pa. 

United Steel Company_Canton, Ohio 

Vanadium Alloys Steel Company_Latrobe, Pa. 

\hdcan Crucible Steel Company_Aliquippa, Pa. 


SPRINGS—(Automobile) 


Canton Spring & Axle Company_Canton, Ohio 

Detroit Steel lYodnets Company'_Detroit, Mich. 

Hess Pontiac Spring & Axle Company_ Pontiac, Mich. 

Perfection Spring Company_Cleveland, Ohio 

William & Harvey Rowland_Philadelphia, Pa. 


SPRINGS—(Locomotive and Large Spiral) 


Crucible Steel Company of America_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Pittsburg Spring & Steel Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Railway Steel Spring Company_New York, N. ^ . 

Union Spring Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 


SPRINGS—(Small Spiral, etc.) 


.\merican Steel & Wire Company_Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Dunbar Brothers_Bristol, Conn. 

Gibson Spring Company_Chicago, Ill. 

Miller & Van Winkle_New Vork, N. ^ . 

Morgan Spring Company_^\orcester, Mass. 

Raymond Manufacturing Company-Corry, Pa. 

TROPENAS CAST STEEL 

Brylgon Steel Casting Company-Newcastle, Del. 

Falk Steel Casting Company_Milwaukee, Mis. 

Reading Steel Casting Company-Reading, Pa. 

TUBING—(Welded and Seamless) 

National Tube Company_Pittsburgh, Fa. 















































62 


VANADIUM STEELS 


INDEX 


“A” Type of Vanadium Steel_ 

Acid Open Hearth Process- 

Aliimino Vanadium_ 

“Amervan” Vanadium Alloys_ 

Annealing_ 

Applications of Vanadium Steels 
Arnold, Prof_ 


I'AGK 


_P2, 1(), IJ), .‘H, tio, 30 

_ .54 

_ o 

_ .53 

_ 9, 10 

'■24, >2.5, 20, 27, 28, 29, .30, 31 
_ 8, 1.5 


Ilaryta, Carbonate_ 

Basic Open Hearth Process_ 

Bed Plate, M arine Engine_ 4.5 

Bed Plate, Upsetting Machine- 40 

Bessemer Process_ 

Bompland_ 3 

Bone_ HI 

Bone Dust_ 

Bone, hydrocarbonated_ 19 

Brine, iced_ I’l 


Calescence Point_ 10,12 

Carbides_ 11,12 

Carbonate of baryta_ 19 

Case Hardening Process,_18, 19, 20, 21 

(-astings. Vanadium Steel_ 43 

('ast Iron, Air Furnace_ a 8 

“ Cupola Iron_ -57 

“ Malleable_ -^8 

“ Vanadium in_ .50 

Chromium_ 10, 14 

Charcoal_ 19 

Collet Descotils_ 3 

Color, Correlation of Temperatures_ 21 

Cotton Seed Oil_ 13 

Compositions, comparative___ 10, 17 

Crucible Process_ a4 

Cupro Vanadium_ -5 

Cylinder, Crucible for Torpedo_ -50 

Cylinder, Locomotive_ 40 


“D” Type of Vanadium Steel__14, 10, .37, .38, .39, 40 

Del Rio_ 3 

Dies, Hot Forging _ aO 

“ Riveting_ -51 

“ ^"anadium Steel_- 48 

I)ravv Back_ 12 

“ in lead_ 13 

“ in oil_ ...... 13 
















































VANADIUM STEELS 


63 




I N D E X— Continued 


r.AGE 

Driving Wheel Center__ 47 

Dynamic Testing of Steel_ 7 

“E” Type of Vanadium Steel_ 1(5, 40, 41 

“Pv” Type, Case Hardened_ 18 

P^rythronium_ 3 

P>ye Bar Test_Frontispiece 

“p” Type of Vanadium Steel_ 1(5 

PVrrite_ }) 

P'erro-Vanadium_ 5, 53 

Pdsh Oil_ 13 

Plue Cutters_ 51 

P'orging Qualities_ 52 

PVame, Ivocomotive_44,45 

“G” Type of Vanadium Steel_17, 41, 42 

“H” Type of Vanadium Steel_17, 42, 43 

Heat Treatments, for different compositions_ 9, 18 

History of Vanadium_ 3 

Humholdt_ 3 

“M” Type of Vanadium Steel_17, 43 to 47 . 

“K” Type of Vanadium Steel__ . 17, 48 

Landgraf-Turner Machine-- 7 

Lard Oil_ 13 

Leather Charred_ 19 

Loss in Addition_ 15, 5(5 

Machining Qualities- 52 

MacWilliam, Prof-- 

Malleable Iron_ 58 

Manufacturers of Vanadium Products- (50, (51 

Manganese, in Pearlite--— 10 

Martensite_IL l'^’ l‘b 1-1 

Microphotographs, Description of- IL 12 

“ Illustrations_ 22, 23 

Milton J. T_ 8 


XickcL- 

Nitrides 


10 

15 


Oils, for Drawback 
Oxides_ 


Panchrome 


3 










































64 


VANADIUM STEELS 


-7 


I N D E X—Continued 


Pearlite_ 

Phosphorous_•_ 

Pinion, Rolling Mill_ 

Piston, IRowing Engine 


I’AGK 

9, 10 
10 
44 
40 


Quality Figures, Table of___ 33 

Quenching------ 11,12 

Recalescence Point_ 10 

Reddington Flue Cutter_ ,>1 

Roscoe, Sir Henry_ 4 

Saws, X’anadium Steel_ 4 '^ 

Sefstrom_ 3 ^ 4 

Silicon_ 10 

Solution, Solid_ 12 

Sorbitic Areas_ H 

Special Types—Vanadium Steel_ 49 50 51 

Sulphur_ 15 

Taberg- 3 

Tests, results of comparative_32, 33 

Tropenas Practice_ 55 

Turner, W. L_ g 

Uniformity_ 52 

Useful Strength in Steel_ 0 

• 

Vanadis_ 3 

Vanadium, Atomic Weight of_ 4 

Discovery of_ 3 

Distribution of_ 4 

Effects of_ g 

Heat Treatment of, in Steel_ 9 

in Acid Open Hearth Steel_ 54 

in Basic Open Hearth Steel_ 55 

in Bessemer Steel_ 55 

in Cast Iron_ 56 57 

in Cnicible Steel_ 54 

in Wrought Iron_ 5 g 

Loss in Addition_ I 5 50 

Products, makers of_ 00 61 

Specific Gravity_ 4 

Specific Heat__ 4 


Welding (Qualities_ 

Wrought Iron, \'ana<lium in 

/imapan_ 



THECOROAYSGROSSCOCLEVELAND 
















































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